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1.1 |
NAME |
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1.2 |
JSON::XS - JSON serialising/deserialising, done correctly and fast |
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1.1 |
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1.19 |
JSON::XS - 正しくて高速な JSON |
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シリアライザ/デシリアライザ |
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(http://fleur.hio.jp/perldoc/mix/lib/JSON/XS.html) |
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1.1 |
SYNOPSIS |
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1.2 |
use JSON::XS; |
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1.1 |
|
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1.8 |
# exported functions, they croak on error |
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# and expect/generate UTF-8 |
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1.4 |
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$utf8_encoded_json_text = to_json $perl_hash_or_arrayref; |
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$perl_hash_or_arrayref = from_json $utf8_encoded_json_text; |
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1.8 |
# OO-interface |
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1.4 |
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$coder = JSON::XS->new->ascii->pretty->allow_nonref; |
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$pretty_printed_unencoded = $coder->encode ($perl_scalar); |
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$perl_scalar = $coder->decode ($unicode_json_text); |
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1.21 |
# Note that JSON version 2.0 and above will automatically use JSON::XS |
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# if available, at virtually no speed overhead either, so you should |
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# be able to just: |
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use JSON; |
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# and do the same things, except that you have a pure-perl fallback now. |
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1.1 |
DESCRIPTION |
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1.2 |
This module converts Perl data structures to JSON and vice versa. Its |
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primary goal is to be *correct* and its secondary goal is to be *fast*. |
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To reach the latter goal it was written in C. |
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1.21 |
Beginning with version 2.0 of the JSON module, when both JSON and |
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JSON::XS are installed, then JSON will fall back on JSON::XS (this can |
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be overriden) with no overhead due to emulation (by inheritign |
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constructor and methods). If JSON::XS is not available, it will fall |
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back to the compatible JSON::PP module as backend, so using JSON instead |
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of JSON::XS gives you a portable JSON API that can be fast when you need |
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and doesn't require a C compiler when that is a problem. |
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1.2 |
As this is the n-th-something JSON module on CPAN, what was the reason |
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to write yet another JSON module? While it seems there are many JSON |
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modules, none of them correctly handle all corner cases, and in most |
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cases their maintainers are unresponsive, gone missing, or not listening |
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to bug reports for other reasons. |
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See COMPARISON, below, for a comparison to some other JSON modules. |
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1.4 |
See MAPPING, below, on how JSON::XS maps perl values to JSON values and |
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vice versa. |
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1.2 |
FEATURES |
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1.20 |
* correct Unicode handling |
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1.4 |
This module knows how to handle Unicode, and even documents how and |
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when it does so. |
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1.2 |
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* round-trip integrity |
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When you serialise a perl data structure using only datatypes |
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supported by JSON, the deserialised data structure is identical on |
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1.8 |
the Perl level. (e.g. the string "2.0" doesn't suddenly become "2" |
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just because it looks like a number). |
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1.2 |
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* strict checking of JSON correctness |
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1.6 |
There is no guessing, no generating of illegal JSON texts by |
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1.4 |
default, and only JSON is accepted as input by default (the latter |
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is a security feature). |
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1.2 |
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* fast |
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1.4 |
Compared to other JSON modules, this module compares favourably in |
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terms of speed, too. |
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1.2 |
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* simple to use |
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This module has both a simple functional interface as well as an OO |
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interface. |
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* reasonably versatile output formats |
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1.20 |
You can choose between the most compact guaranteed single-line |
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1.4 |
format possible (nice for simple line-based protocols), a pure-ascii |
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1.8 |
format (for when your transport is not 8-bit clean, still supports |
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1.20 |
the whole Unicode range), or a pretty-printed format (for when you |
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1.8 |
want to read that stuff). Or you can combine those features in |
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whatever way you like. |
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1.2 |
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FUNCTIONAL INTERFACE |
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1.20 |
The following convenience methods are provided by this module. They are |
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1.2 |
exported by default: |
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1.6 |
$json_text = to_json $perl_scalar |
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1.19 |
Converts the given Perl data structure to a UTF-8 encoded, binary |
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string (that is, the string contains octets only). Croaks on error. |
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1.2 |
|
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1.6 |
This function call is functionally identical to: |
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1.2 |
|
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1.6 |
$json_text = JSON::XS->new->utf8->encode ($perl_scalar) |
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except being faster. |
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$perl_scalar = from_json $json_text |
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1.2 |
The opposite of "to_json": expects an UTF-8 (binary) string and |
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1.6 |
tries to parse that as an UTF-8 encoded JSON text, returning the |
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1.19 |
resulting reference. Croaks on error. |
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1.2 |
|
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1.6 |
This function call is functionally identical to: |
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$perl_scalar = JSON::XS->new->utf8->decode ($json_text) |
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except being faster. |
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1.2 |
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1.14 |
$is_boolean = JSON::XS::is_bool $scalar |
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Returns true if the passed scalar represents either JSON::XS::true |
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or JSON::XS::false, two constants that act like 1 and 0, |
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respectively and are used to represent JSON "true" and "false" |
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values in Perl. |
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See MAPPING, below, for more information on how JSON values are |
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mapped to Perl. |
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1.19 |
A FEW NOTES ON UNICODE AND PERL |
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Since this often leads to confusion, here are a few very clear words on |
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how Unicode works in Perl, modulo bugs. |
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1. Perl strings can store characters with ordinal values > 255. |
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1.20 |
This enables you to store Unicode characters as single characters in |
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1.19 |
a Perl string - very natural. |
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2. Perl does *not* associate an encoding with your strings. |
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Unless you force it to, e.g. when matching it against a regex, or |
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printing the scalar to a file, in which case Perl either interprets |
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your string as locale-encoded text, octets/binary, or as Unicode, |
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depending on various settings. In no case is an encoding stored |
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together with your data, it is *use* that decides encoding, not any |
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magical metadata. |
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3. The internal utf-8 flag has no meaning with regards to the encoding |
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of your string. |
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Just ignore that flag unless you debug a Perl bug, a module written |
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in XS or want to dive into the internals of perl. Otherwise it will |
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only confuse you, as, despite the name, it says nothing about how |
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1.20 |
your string is encoded. You can have Unicode strings with that flag |
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1.19 |
set, with that flag clear, and you can have binary data with that |
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flag set and that flag clear. Other possibilities exist, too. |
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If you didn't know about that flag, just the better, pretend it |
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doesn't exist. |
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4. A "Unicode String" is simply a string where each character can be |
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validly interpreted as a Unicode codepoint. |
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If you have UTF-8 encoded data, it is no longer a Unicode string, |
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but a Unicode string encoded in UTF-8, giving you a binary string. |
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5. A string containing "high" (> 255) character values is *not* a UTF-8 |
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string. |
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1.20 |
It's a fact. Learn to live with it. |
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1.19 |
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I hope this helps :) |
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1.2 |
OBJECT-ORIENTED INTERFACE |
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The object oriented interface lets you configure your own encoding or |
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decoding style, within the limits of supported formats. |
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$json = new JSON::XS |
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Creates a new JSON::XS object that can be used to de/encode JSON |
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strings. All boolean flags described below are by default |
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*disabled*. |
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The mutators for flags all return the JSON object again and thus |
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calls can be chained: |
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1.6 |
my $json = JSON::XS->new->utf8->space_after->encode ({a => [1,2]}) |
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1.2 |
=> {"a": [1, 2]} |
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1.4 |
$json = $json->ascii ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_ascii |
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1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will not |
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1.6 |
generate characters outside the code range 0..127 (which is ASCII). |
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1.20 |
Any Unicode characters outside that range will be escaped using |
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1.6 |
either a single \uXXXX (BMP characters) or a double \uHHHH\uLLLLL |
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1.11 |
escape sequence, as per RFC4627. The resulting encoded JSON text can |
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1.20 |
be treated as a native Unicode string, an ascii-encoded, |
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1.11 |
latin1-encoded or UTF-8 encoded string, or any other superset of |
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ASCII. |
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1.2 |
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If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will not escape |
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1.11 |
Unicode characters unless required by the JSON syntax or other |
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flags. This results in a faster and more compact format. |
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The main use for this flag is to produce JSON texts that can be |
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transmitted over a 7-bit channel, as the encoded JSON texts will not |
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contain any 8 bit characters. |
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1.2 |
|
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1.6 |
JSON::XS->new->ascii (1)->encode ([chr 0x10401]) |
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=> ["\ud801\udc01"] |
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1.2 |
|
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1.11 |
$json = $json->latin1 ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_latin1 |
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1.11 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will |
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encode the resulting JSON text as latin1 (or iso-8859-1), escaping |
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any characters outside the code range 0..255. The resulting string |
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1.20 |
can be treated as a latin1-encoded JSON text or a native Unicode |
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1.11 |
string. The "decode" method will not be affected in any way by this |
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1.20 |
flag, as "decode" by default expects Unicode, which is a strict |
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1.11 |
superset of latin1. |
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If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will not escape |
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Unicode characters unless required by the JSON syntax or other |
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flags. |
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The main use for this flag is efficiently encoding binary data as |
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JSON text, as most octets will not be escaped, resulting in a |
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smaller encoded size. The disadvantage is that the resulting JSON |
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text is encoded in latin1 (and must correctly be treated as such |
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1.20 |
when storing and transferring), a rare encoding for JSON. It is |
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1.11 |
therefore most useful when you want to store data structures known |
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to contain binary data efficiently in files or databases, not when |
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talking to other JSON encoders/decoders. |
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JSON::XS->new->latin1->encode (["\x{89}\x{abc}"] |
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=> ["\x{89}\\u0abc"] # (perl syntax, U+abc escaped, U+89 not) |
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1.4 |
$json = $json->utf8 ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_utf8 |
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1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will |
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1.6 |
encode the JSON result into UTF-8, as required by many protocols, |
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1.4 |
while the "decode" method expects to be handled an UTF-8-encoded |
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string. Please note that UTF-8-encoded strings do not contain any |
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characters outside the range 0..255, they are thus useful for |
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1.6 |
bytewise/binary I/O. In future versions, enabling this option might |
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enable autodetection of the UTF-16 and UTF-32 encoding families, as |
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described in RFC4627. |
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1.2 |
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If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will return the JSON |
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1.20 |
string as a (non-encoded) Unicode string, while "decode" expects |
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thus a Unicode string. Any decoding or encoding (e.g. to UTF-8 or |
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1.2 |
UTF-16) needs to be done yourself, e.g. using the Encode module. |
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1.6 |
Example, output UTF-16BE-encoded JSON: |
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use Encode; |
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$jsontext = encode "UTF-16BE", JSON::XS->new->encode ($object); |
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Example, decode UTF-32LE-encoded JSON: |
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use Encode; |
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$object = JSON::XS->new->decode (decode "UTF-32LE", $jsontext); |
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1.4 |
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$json = $json->pretty ([$enable]) |
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1.2 |
This enables (or disables) all of the "indent", "space_before" and |
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"space_after" (and in the future possibly more) flags in one call to |
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generate the most readable (or most compact) form possible. |
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1.4 |
Example, pretty-print some simple structure: |
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1.2 |
my $json = JSON::XS->new->pretty(1)->encode ({a => [1,2]}) |
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=> |
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{ |
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"a" : [ |
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1, |
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2 |
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] |
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} |
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1.4 |
$json = $json->indent ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_indent |
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1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will use a |
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multiline format as output, putting every array member or |
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1.20 |
object/hash key-value pair into its own line, indenting them |
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1.4 |
properly. |
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1.2 |
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If $enable is false, no newlines or indenting will be produced, and |
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1.20 |
the resulting JSON text is guaranteed not to contain any "newlines". |
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1.2 |
|
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1.6 |
This setting has no effect when decoding JSON texts. |
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1.2 |
|
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1.4 |
$json = $json->space_before ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_space_before |
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1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will add |
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an extra optional space before the ":" separating keys from values |
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in JSON objects. |
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1.2 |
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If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will not add any extra |
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space at those places. |
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1.6 |
This setting has no effect when decoding JSON texts. You will also |
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1.2 |
most likely combine this setting with "space_after". |
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1.4 |
Example, space_before enabled, space_after and indent disabled: |
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{"key" :"value"} |
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$json = $json->space_after ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_space_after |
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1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will add |
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an extra optional space after the ":" separating keys from values in |
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JSON objects and extra whitespace after the "," separating key-value |
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1.2 |
pairs and array members. |
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If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will not add any extra |
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space at those places. |
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1.6 |
This setting has no effect when decoding JSON texts. |
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1.2 |
|
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1.4 |
Example, space_before and indent disabled, space_after enabled: |
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{"key": "value"} |
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1.17 |
$json = $json->relaxed ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_relaxed |
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1.17 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then "decode" will accept some |
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extensions to normal JSON syntax (see below). "encode" will not be |
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affected in anyway. *Be aware that this option makes you accept |
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invalid JSON texts as if they were valid!*. I suggest only to use |
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this option to parse application-specific files written by humans |
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(configuration files, resource files etc.) |
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If $enable is false (the default), then "decode" will only accept |
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valid JSON texts. |
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Currently accepted extensions are: |
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* list items can have an end-comma |
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JSON *separates* array elements and key-value pairs with commas. |
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This can be annoying if you write JSON texts manually and want |
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to be able to quickly append elements, so this extension accepts |
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comma at the end of such items not just between them: |
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[ |
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1, |
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2, <- this comma not normally allowed |
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] |
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{ |
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"k1": "v1", |
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"k2": "v2", <- this comma not normally allowed |
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} |
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1.18 |
* shell-style '#'-comments |
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Whenever JSON allows whitespace, shell-style comments are |
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additionally allowed. They are terminated by the first |
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carriage-return or line-feed character, after which more |
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white-space and comments are allowed. |
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[ |
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1, # this comment not allowed in JSON |
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# neither this one... |
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] |
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1.4 |
$json = $json->canonical ([$enable]) |
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1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_canonical |
351 |
root |
1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will |
352 |
|
|
output JSON objects by sorting their keys. This is adding a |
353 |
|
|
comparatively high overhead. |
354 |
root |
1.2 |
|
355 |
|
|
If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will output key-value |
356 |
|
|
pairs in the order Perl stores them (which will likely change |
357 |
|
|
between runs of the same script). |
358 |
|
|
|
359 |
|
|
This option is useful if you want the same data structure to be |
360 |
root |
1.6 |
encoded as the same JSON text (given the same overall settings). If |
361 |
root |
1.20 |
it is disabled, the same hash might be encoded differently even if |
362 |
root |
1.2 |
contains the same data, as key-value pairs have no inherent ordering |
363 |
|
|
in Perl. |
364 |
|
|
|
365 |
root |
1.6 |
This setting has no effect when decoding JSON texts. |
366 |
root |
1.2 |
|
367 |
root |
1.4 |
$json = $json->allow_nonref ([$enable]) |
368 |
root |
1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_allow_nonref |
369 |
root |
1.4 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method can |
370 |
|
|
convert a non-reference into its corresponding string, number or |
371 |
|
|
null JSON value, which is an extension to RFC4627. Likewise, |
372 |
|
|
"decode" will accept those JSON values instead of croaking. |
373 |
root |
1.2 |
|
374 |
|
|
If $enable is false, then the "encode" method will croak if it isn't |
375 |
root |
1.6 |
passed an arrayref or hashref, as JSON texts must either be an |
376 |
root |
1.2 |
object or array. Likewise, "decode" will croak if given something |
377 |
|
|
that is not a JSON object or array. |
378 |
|
|
|
379 |
root |
1.4 |
Example, encode a Perl scalar as JSON value with enabled |
380 |
|
|
"allow_nonref", resulting in an invalid JSON text: |
381 |
|
|
|
382 |
|
|
JSON::XS->new->allow_nonref->encode ("Hello, World!") |
383 |
|
|
=> "Hello, World!" |
384 |
|
|
|
385 |
root |
1.15 |
$json = $json->allow_blessed ([$enable]) |
386 |
root |
1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_allow_blessed |
387 |
root |
1.15 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then the "encode" method will not |
388 |
|
|
barf when it encounters a blessed reference. Instead, the value of |
389 |
root |
1.20 |
the convert_blessed option will decide whether "null" |
390 |
root |
1.21 |
("convert_blessed" disabled or no "TO_JSON" method found) or a |
391 |
root |
1.15 |
representation of the object ("convert_blessed" enabled and |
392 |
root |
1.21 |
"TO_JSON" method found) is being encoded. Has no effect on "decode". |
393 |
root |
1.15 |
|
394 |
|
|
If $enable is false (the default), then "encode" will throw an |
395 |
|
|
exception when it encounters a blessed object. |
396 |
|
|
|
397 |
|
|
$json = $json->convert_blessed ([$enable]) |
398 |
root |
1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_convert_blessed |
399 |
root |
1.15 |
If $enable is true (or missing), then "encode", upon encountering a |
400 |
|
|
blessed object, will check for the availability of the "TO_JSON" |
401 |
|
|
method on the object's class. If found, it will be called in scalar |
402 |
|
|
context and the resulting scalar will be encoded instead of the |
403 |
|
|
object. If no "TO_JSON" method is found, the value of |
404 |
|
|
"allow_blessed" will decide what to do. |
405 |
|
|
|
406 |
|
|
The "TO_JSON" method may safely call die if it wants. If "TO_JSON" |
407 |
|
|
returns other blessed objects, those will be handled in the same |
408 |
|
|
way. "TO_JSON" must take care of not causing an endless recursion |
409 |
|
|
cycle (== crash) in this case. The name of "TO_JSON" was chosen |
410 |
|
|
because other methods called by the Perl core (== not by the user of |
411 |
|
|
the object) are usually in upper case letters and to avoid |
412 |
|
|
collisions with the "to_json" function. |
413 |
|
|
|
414 |
|
|
This setting does not yet influence "decode" in any way, but in the |
415 |
|
|
future, global hooks might get installed that influence "decode" and |
416 |
|
|
are enabled by this setting. |
417 |
|
|
|
418 |
|
|
If $enable is false, then the "allow_blessed" setting will decide |
419 |
|
|
what to do when a blessed object is found. |
420 |
|
|
|
421 |
|
|
$json = $json->filter_json_object ([$coderef->($hashref)]) |
422 |
|
|
When $coderef is specified, it will be called from "decode" each |
423 |
|
|
time it decodes a JSON object. The only argument is a reference to |
424 |
|
|
the newly-created hash. If the code references returns a single |
425 |
|
|
scalar (which need not be a reference), this value (i.e. a copy of |
426 |
|
|
that scalar to avoid aliasing) is inserted into the deserialised |
427 |
|
|
data structure. If it returns an empty list (NOTE: *not* "undef", |
428 |
|
|
which is a valid scalar), the original deserialised hash will be |
429 |
|
|
inserted. This setting can slow down decoding considerably. |
430 |
|
|
|
431 |
|
|
When $coderef is omitted or undefined, any existing callback will be |
432 |
|
|
removed and "decode" will not change the deserialised hash in any |
433 |
|
|
way. |
434 |
|
|
|
435 |
|
|
Example, convert all JSON objects into the integer 5: |
436 |
|
|
|
437 |
|
|
my $js = JSON::XS->new->filter_json_object (sub { 5 }); |
438 |
|
|
# returns [5] |
439 |
|
|
$js->decode ('[{}]') |
440 |
|
|
# throw an exception because allow_nonref is not enabled |
441 |
|
|
# so a lone 5 is not allowed. |
442 |
|
|
$js->decode ('{"a":1, "b":2}'); |
443 |
|
|
|
444 |
|
|
$json = $json->filter_json_single_key_object ($key [=> |
445 |
|
|
$coderef->($value)]) |
446 |
|
|
Works remotely similar to "filter_json_object", but is only called |
447 |
|
|
for JSON objects having a single key named $key. |
448 |
|
|
|
449 |
|
|
This $coderef is called before the one specified via |
450 |
|
|
"filter_json_object", if any. It gets passed the single value in the |
451 |
|
|
JSON object. If it returns a single value, it will be inserted into |
452 |
|
|
the data structure. If it returns nothing (not even "undef" but the |
453 |
|
|
empty list), the callback from "filter_json_object" will be called |
454 |
|
|
next, as if no single-key callback were specified. |
455 |
|
|
|
456 |
|
|
If $coderef is omitted or undefined, the corresponding callback will |
457 |
|
|
be disabled. There can only ever be one callback for a given key. |
458 |
|
|
|
459 |
|
|
As this callback gets called less often then the |
460 |
|
|
"filter_json_object" one, decoding speed will not usually suffer as |
461 |
|
|
much. Therefore, single-key objects make excellent targets to |
462 |
|
|
serialise Perl objects into, especially as single-key JSON objects |
463 |
root |
1.20 |
are as close to the type-tagged value concept as JSON gets (it's |
464 |
root |
1.15 |
basically an ID/VALUE tuple). Of course, JSON does not support this |
465 |
|
|
in any way, so you need to make sure your data never looks like a |
466 |
|
|
serialised Perl hash. |
467 |
|
|
|
468 |
|
|
Typical names for the single object key are "__class_whatever__", or |
469 |
|
|
"$__dollars_are_rarely_used__$" or "}ugly_brace_placement", or even |
470 |
|
|
things like "__class_md5sum(classname)__", to reduce the risk of |
471 |
|
|
clashing with real hashes. |
472 |
|
|
|
473 |
|
|
Example, decode JSON objects of the form "{ "__widget__" => <id> }" |
474 |
|
|
into the corresponding $WIDGET{<id>} object: |
475 |
|
|
|
476 |
|
|
# return whatever is in $WIDGET{5}: |
477 |
|
|
JSON::XS |
478 |
|
|
->new |
479 |
|
|
->filter_json_single_key_object (__widget__ => sub { |
480 |
|
|
$WIDGET{ $_[0] } |
481 |
|
|
}) |
482 |
|
|
->decode ('{"__widget__": 5') |
483 |
|
|
|
484 |
|
|
# this can be used with a TO_JSON method in some "widget" class |
485 |
|
|
# for serialisation to json: |
486 |
|
|
sub WidgetBase::TO_JSON { |
487 |
|
|
my ($self) = @_; |
488 |
|
|
|
489 |
|
|
unless ($self->{id}) { |
490 |
|
|
$self->{id} = ..get..some..id..; |
491 |
|
|
$WIDGET{$self->{id}} = $self; |
492 |
|
|
} |
493 |
|
|
|
494 |
|
|
{ __widget__ => $self->{id} } |
495 |
|
|
} |
496 |
|
|
|
497 |
root |
1.4 |
$json = $json->shrink ([$enable]) |
498 |
root |
1.21 |
$enabled = $json->get_shrink |
499 |
root |
1.4 |
Perl usually over-allocates memory a bit when allocating space for |
500 |
|
|
strings. This flag optionally resizes strings generated by either |
501 |
|
|
"encode" or "decode" to their minimum size possible. This can save |
502 |
root |
1.6 |
memory when your JSON texts are either very very long or you have |
503 |
root |
1.4 |
many short strings. It will also try to downgrade any strings to |
504 |
|
|
octet-form if possible: perl stores strings internally either in an |
505 |
|
|
encoding called UTF-X or in octet-form. The latter cannot store |
506 |
root |
1.9 |
everything but uses less space in general (and some buggy Perl or C |
507 |
|
|
code might even rely on that internal representation being used). |
508 |
|
|
|
509 |
|
|
The actual definition of what shrink does might change in future |
510 |
|
|
versions, but it will always try to save space at the expense of |
511 |
|
|
time. |
512 |
root |
1.4 |
|
513 |
|
|
If $enable is true (or missing), the string returned by "encode" |
514 |
|
|
will be shrunk-to-fit, while all strings generated by "decode" will |
515 |
|
|
also be shrunk-to-fit. |
516 |
|
|
|
517 |
|
|
If $enable is false, then the normal perl allocation algorithms are |
518 |
|
|
used. If you work with your data, then this is likely to be faster. |
519 |
|
|
|
520 |
|
|
In the future, this setting might control other things, such as |
521 |
|
|
converting strings that look like integers or floats into integers |
522 |
|
|
or floats internally (there is no difference on the Perl level), |
523 |
|
|
saving space. |
524 |
|
|
|
525 |
root |
1.8 |
$json = $json->max_depth ([$maximum_nesting_depth]) |
526 |
root |
1.21 |
$max_depth = $json->get_max_depth |
527 |
root |
1.10 |
Sets the maximum nesting level (default 512) accepted while encoding |
528 |
|
|
or decoding. If the JSON text or Perl data structure has an equal or |
529 |
|
|
higher nesting level then this limit, then the encoder and decoder |
530 |
|
|
will stop and croak at that point. |
531 |
root |
1.8 |
|
532 |
|
|
Nesting level is defined by number of hash- or arrayrefs that the |
533 |
|
|
encoder needs to traverse to reach a given point or the number of |
534 |
|
|
"{" or "[" characters without their matching closing parenthesis |
535 |
|
|
crossed to reach a given character in a string. |
536 |
|
|
|
537 |
|
|
Setting the maximum depth to one disallows any nesting, so that |
538 |
|
|
ensures that the object is only a single hash/object or array. |
539 |
|
|
|
540 |
root |
1.15 |
The argument to "max_depth" will be rounded up to the next highest |
541 |
|
|
power of two. If no argument is given, the highest possible setting |
542 |
|
|
will be used, which is rarely useful. |
543 |
|
|
|
544 |
|
|
See SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS, below, for more info on why this is |
545 |
|
|
useful. |
546 |
|
|
|
547 |
|
|
$json = $json->max_size ([$maximum_string_size]) |
548 |
root |
1.21 |
$max_size = $json->get_max_size |
549 |
root |
1.15 |
Set the maximum length a JSON text may have (in bytes) where |
550 |
|
|
decoding is being attempted. The default is 0, meaning no limit. |
551 |
|
|
When "decode" is called on a string longer then this number of |
552 |
|
|
characters it will not attempt to decode the string but throw an |
553 |
|
|
exception. This setting has no effect on "encode" (yet). |
554 |
|
|
|
555 |
|
|
The argument to "max_size" will be rounded up to the next highest |
556 |
|
|
power of two (so may be more than requested). If no argument is |
557 |
|
|
given, the limit check will be deactivated (same as when 0 is |
558 |
|
|
specified). |
559 |
root |
1.8 |
|
560 |
|
|
See SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS, below, for more info on why this is |
561 |
|
|
useful. |
562 |
|
|
|
563 |
root |
1.6 |
$json_text = $json->encode ($perl_scalar) |
564 |
root |
1.2 |
Converts the given Perl data structure (a simple scalar or a |
565 |
|
|
reference to a hash or array) to its JSON representation. Simple |
566 |
|
|
scalars will be converted into JSON string or number sequences, |
567 |
|
|
while references to arrays become JSON arrays and references to |
568 |
|
|
hashes become JSON objects. Undefined Perl values (e.g. "undef") |
569 |
|
|
become JSON "null" values. Neither "true" nor "false" values will be |
570 |
|
|
generated. |
571 |
|
|
|
572 |
root |
1.6 |
$perl_scalar = $json->decode ($json_text) |
573 |
|
|
The opposite of "encode": expects a JSON text and tries to parse it, |
574 |
|
|
returning the resulting simple scalar or reference. Croaks on error. |
575 |
root |
1.2 |
|
576 |
|
|
JSON numbers and strings become simple Perl scalars. JSON arrays |
577 |
|
|
become Perl arrayrefs and JSON objects become Perl hashrefs. "true" |
578 |
|
|
becomes 1, "false" becomes 0 and "null" becomes "undef". |
579 |
|
|
|
580 |
root |
1.11 |
($perl_scalar, $characters) = $json->decode_prefix ($json_text) |
581 |
|
|
This works like the "decode" method, but instead of raising an |
582 |
|
|
exception when there is trailing garbage after the first JSON |
583 |
|
|
object, it will silently stop parsing there and return the number of |
584 |
|
|
characters consumed so far. |
585 |
|
|
|
586 |
|
|
This is useful if your JSON texts are not delimited by an outer |
587 |
|
|
protocol (which is not the brightest thing to do in the first place) |
588 |
|
|
and you need to know where the JSON text ends. |
589 |
|
|
|
590 |
|
|
JSON::XS->new->decode_prefix ("[1] the tail") |
591 |
|
|
=> ([], 3) |
592 |
|
|
|
593 |
root |
1.4 |
MAPPING |
594 |
|
|
This section describes how JSON::XS maps Perl values to JSON values and |
595 |
|
|
vice versa. These mappings are designed to "do the right thing" in most |
596 |
|
|
circumstances automatically, preserving round-tripping characteristics |
597 |
|
|
(what you put in comes out as something equivalent). |
598 |
|
|
|
599 |
|
|
For the more enlightened: note that in the following descriptions, |
600 |
root |
1.20 |
lowercase *perl* refers to the Perl interpreter, while uppercase *Perl* |
601 |
root |
1.4 |
refers to the abstract Perl language itself. |
602 |
|
|
|
603 |
|
|
JSON -> PERL |
604 |
|
|
object |
605 |
|
|
A JSON object becomes a reference to a hash in Perl. No ordering of |
606 |
root |
1.20 |
object keys is preserved (JSON does not preserve object key ordering |
607 |
|
|
itself). |
608 |
root |
1.4 |
|
609 |
|
|
array |
610 |
|
|
A JSON array becomes a reference to an array in Perl. |
611 |
|
|
|
612 |
|
|
string |
613 |
|
|
A JSON string becomes a string scalar in Perl - Unicode codepoints |
614 |
|
|
in JSON are represented by the same codepoints in the Perl string, |
615 |
|
|
so no manual decoding is necessary. |
616 |
|
|
|
617 |
|
|
number |
618 |
root |
1.16 |
A JSON number becomes either an integer, numeric (floating point) or |
619 |
|
|
string scalar in perl, depending on its range and any fractional |
620 |
|
|
parts. On the Perl level, there is no difference between those as |
621 |
|
|
Perl handles all the conversion details, but an integer may take |
622 |
|
|
slightly less memory and might represent more values exactly than |
623 |
|
|
(floating point) numbers. |
624 |
|
|
|
625 |
|
|
If the number consists of digits only, JSON::XS will try to |
626 |
|
|
represent it as an integer value. If that fails, it will try to |
627 |
|
|
represent it as a numeric (floating point) value if that is possible |
628 |
|
|
without loss of precision. Otherwise it will preserve the number as |
629 |
|
|
a string value. |
630 |
|
|
|
631 |
|
|
Numbers containing a fractional or exponential part will always be |
632 |
|
|
represented as numeric (floating point) values, possibly at a loss |
633 |
|
|
of precision. |
634 |
|
|
|
635 |
|
|
This might create round-tripping problems as numbers might become |
636 |
|
|
strings, but as Perl is typeless there is no other way to do it. |
637 |
root |
1.4 |
|
638 |
|
|
true, false |
639 |
root |
1.14 |
These JSON atoms become "JSON::XS::true" and "JSON::XS::false", |
640 |
|
|
respectively. They are overloaded to act almost exactly like the |
641 |
root |
1.20 |
numbers 1 and 0. You can check whether a scalar is a JSON boolean by |
642 |
root |
1.14 |
using the "JSON::XS::is_bool" function. |
643 |
root |
1.4 |
|
644 |
|
|
null |
645 |
|
|
A JSON null atom becomes "undef" in Perl. |
646 |
|
|
|
647 |
|
|
PERL -> JSON |
648 |
|
|
The mapping from Perl to JSON is slightly more difficult, as Perl is a |
649 |
|
|
truly typeless language, so we can only guess which JSON type is meant |
650 |
|
|
by a Perl value. |
651 |
|
|
|
652 |
|
|
hash references |
653 |
|
|
Perl hash references become JSON objects. As there is no inherent |
654 |
root |
1.9 |
ordering in hash keys (or JSON objects), they will usually be |
655 |
|
|
encoded in a pseudo-random order that can change between runs of the |
656 |
|
|
same program but stays generally the same within a single run of a |
657 |
|
|
program. JSON::XS can optionally sort the hash keys (determined by |
658 |
|
|
the *canonical* flag), so the same datastructure will serialise to |
659 |
|
|
the same JSON text (given same settings and version of JSON::XS), |
660 |
|
|
but this incurs a runtime overhead and is only rarely useful, e.g. |
661 |
|
|
when you want to compare some JSON text against another for |
662 |
|
|
equality. |
663 |
root |
1.4 |
|
664 |
|
|
array references |
665 |
|
|
Perl array references become JSON arrays. |
666 |
|
|
|
667 |
root |
1.9 |
other references |
668 |
|
|
Other unblessed references are generally not allowed and will cause |
669 |
|
|
an exception to be thrown, except for references to the integers 0 |
670 |
|
|
and 1, which get turned into "false" and "true" atoms in JSON. You |
671 |
|
|
can also use "JSON::XS::false" and "JSON::XS::true" to improve |
672 |
|
|
readability. |
673 |
|
|
|
674 |
|
|
to_json [\0,JSON::XS::true] # yields [false,true] |
675 |
|
|
|
676 |
root |
1.14 |
JSON::XS::true, JSON::XS::false |
677 |
|
|
These special values become JSON true and JSON false values, |
678 |
root |
1.19 |
respectively. You can also use "\1" and "\0" directly if you want. |
679 |
root |
1.14 |
|
680 |
root |
1.4 |
blessed objects |
681 |
|
|
Blessed objects are not allowed. JSON::XS currently tries to encode |
682 |
|
|
their underlying representation (hash- or arrayref), but this |
683 |
|
|
behaviour might change in future versions. |
684 |
|
|
|
685 |
|
|
simple scalars |
686 |
|
|
Simple Perl scalars (any scalar that is not a reference) are the |
687 |
|
|
most difficult objects to encode: JSON::XS will encode undefined |
688 |
|
|
scalars as JSON null value, scalars that have last been used in a |
689 |
|
|
string context before encoding as JSON strings and anything else as |
690 |
|
|
number value: |
691 |
|
|
|
692 |
|
|
# dump as number |
693 |
|
|
to_json [2] # yields [2] |
694 |
|
|
to_json [-3.0e17] # yields [-3e+17] |
695 |
|
|
my $value = 5; to_json [$value] # yields [5] |
696 |
|
|
|
697 |
|
|
# used as string, so dump as string |
698 |
|
|
print $value; |
699 |
|
|
to_json [$value] # yields ["5"] |
700 |
|
|
|
701 |
|
|
# undef becomes null |
702 |
|
|
to_json [undef] # yields [null] |
703 |
|
|
|
704 |
root |
1.20 |
You can force the type to be a JSON string by stringifying it: |
705 |
root |
1.4 |
|
706 |
|
|
my $x = 3.1; # some variable containing a number |
707 |
|
|
"$x"; # stringified |
708 |
|
|
$x .= ""; # another, more awkward way to stringify |
709 |
|
|
print $x; # perl does it for you, too, quite often |
710 |
|
|
|
711 |
root |
1.20 |
You can force the type to be a JSON number by numifying it: |
712 |
root |
1.4 |
|
713 |
|
|
my $x = "3"; # some variable containing a string |
714 |
|
|
$x += 0; # numify it, ensuring it will be dumped as a number |
715 |
root |
1.20 |
$x *= 1; # same thing, the choice is yours. |
716 |
root |
1.4 |
|
717 |
root |
1.20 |
You can not currently force the type in other, less obscure, ways. |
718 |
|
|
Tell me if you need this capability. |
719 |
root |
1.4 |
|
720 |
root |
1.2 |
COMPARISON |
721 |
|
|
As already mentioned, this module was created because none of the |
722 |
|
|
existing JSON modules could be made to work correctly. First I will |
723 |
|
|
describe the problems (or pleasures) I encountered with various existing |
724 |
|
|
JSON modules, followed by some benchmark values. JSON::XS was designed |
725 |
|
|
not to suffer from any of these problems or limitations. |
726 |
|
|
|
727 |
root |
1.3 |
JSON 1.07 |
728 |
root |
1.2 |
Slow (but very portable, as it is written in pure Perl). |
729 |
|
|
|
730 |
root |
1.20 |
Undocumented/buggy Unicode handling (how JSON handles Unicode values |
731 |
|
|
is undocumented. One can get far by feeding it Unicode strings and |
732 |
|
|
doing en-/decoding oneself, but Unicode escapes are not working |
733 |
root |
1.2 |
properly). |
734 |
|
|
|
735 |
root |
1.20 |
No round-tripping (strings get clobbered if they look like numbers, |
736 |
root |
1.2 |
e.g. the string 2.0 will encode to 2.0 instead of "2.0", and that |
737 |
|
|
will decode into the number 2. |
738 |
|
|
|
739 |
root |
1.3 |
JSON::PC 0.01 |
740 |
root |
1.2 |
Very fast. |
741 |
|
|
|
742 |
|
|
Undocumented/buggy Unicode handling. |
743 |
|
|
|
744 |
root |
1.20 |
No round-tripping. |
745 |
root |
1.2 |
|
746 |
|
|
Has problems handling many Perl values (e.g. regex results and other |
747 |
|
|
magic values will make it croak). |
748 |
|
|
|
749 |
|
|
Does not even generate valid JSON ("{1,2}" gets converted to "{1:2}" |
750 |
root |
1.6 |
which is not a valid JSON text. |
751 |
root |
1.2 |
|
752 |
|
|
Unmaintained (maintainer unresponsive for many months, bugs are not |
753 |
|
|
getting fixed). |
754 |
|
|
|
755 |
root |
1.3 |
JSON::Syck 0.21 |
756 |
root |
1.2 |
Very buggy (often crashes). |
757 |
|
|
|
758 |
|
|
Very inflexible (no human-readable format supported, format pretty |
759 |
|
|
much undocumented. I need at least a format for easy reading by |
760 |
|
|
humans and a single-line compact format for use in a protocol, and |
761 |
root |
1.6 |
preferably a way to generate ASCII-only JSON texts). |
762 |
root |
1.2 |
|
763 |
|
|
Completely broken (and confusingly documented) Unicode handling |
764 |
root |
1.20 |
(Unicode escapes are not working properly, you need to set |
765 |
root |
1.2 |
ImplicitUnicode to *different* values on en- and decoding to get |
766 |
|
|
symmetric behaviour). |
767 |
|
|
|
768 |
root |
1.20 |
No round-tripping (simple cases work, but this depends on whether |
769 |
|
|
the scalar value was used in a numeric context or not). |
770 |
root |
1.2 |
|
771 |
|
|
Dumping hashes may skip hash values depending on iterator state. |
772 |
|
|
|
773 |
|
|
Unmaintained (maintainer unresponsive for many months, bugs are not |
774 |
|
|
getting fixed). |
775 |
|
|
|
776 |
|
|
Does not check input for validity (i.e. will accept non-JSON input |
777 |
|
|
and return "something" instead of raising an exception. This is a |
778 |
root |
1.20 |
security issue: imagine two banks transferring money between each |
779 |
root |
1.2 |
other using JSON. One bank might parse a given non-JSON request and |
780 |
|
|
deduct money, while the other might reject the transaction with a |
781 |
|
|
syntax error. While a good protocol will at least recover, that is |
782 |
|
|
extra unnecessary work and the transaction will still not succeed). |
783 |
|
|
|
784 |
root |
1.3 |
JSON::DWIW 0.04 |
785 |
root |
1.2 |
Very fast. Very natural. Very nice. |
786 |
|
|
|
787 |
root |
1.20 |
Undocumented Unicode handling (but the best of the pack. Unicode |
788 |
root |
1.2 |
escapes still don't get parsed properly). |
789 |
|
|
|
790 |
|
|
Very inflexible. |
791 |
|
|
|
792 |
root |
1.20 |
No round-tripping. |
793 |
root |
1.2 |
|
794 |
root |
1.6 |
Does not generate valid JSON texts (key strings are often unquoted, |
795 |
|
|
empty keys result in nothing being output) |
796 |
root |
1.2 |
|
797 |
|
|
Does not check input for validity. |
798 |
|
|
|
799 |
root |
1.13 |
JSON and YAML |
800 |
|
|
You often hear that JSON is a subset (or a close subset) of YAML. This |
801 |
|
|
is, however, a mass hysteria and very far from the truth. In general, |
802 |
|
|
there is no way to configure JSON::XS to output a data structure as |
803 |
|
|
valid YAML. |
804 |
|
|
|
805 |
|
|
If you really must use JSON::XS to generate YAML, you should use this |
806 |
|
|
algorithm (subject to change in future versions): |
807 |
|
|
|
808 |
|
|
my $to_yaml = JSON::XS->new->utf8->space_after (1); |
809 |
|
|
my $yaml = $to_yaml->encode ($ref) . "\n"; |
810 |
|
|
|
811 |
|
|
This will usually generate JSON texts that also parse as valid YAML. |
812 |
|
|
Please note that YAML has hardcoded limits on (simple) object key |
813 |
|
|
lengths that JSON doesn't have, so you should make sure that your hash |
814 |
root |
1.20 |
keys are noticeably shorter than the 1024 characters YAML allows. |
815 |
root |
1.13 |
|
816 |
|
|
There might be other incompatibilities that I am not aware of. In |
817 |
|
|
general you should not try to generate YAML with a JSON generator or |
818 |
|
|
vice versa, or try to parse JSON with a YAML parser or vice versa: |
819 |
|
|
chances are high that you will run into severe interoperability |
820 |
|
|
problems. |
821 |
|
|
|
822 |
root |
1.2 |
SPEED |
823 |
|
|
It seems that JSON::XS is surprisingly fast, as shown in the following |
824 |
|
|
tables. They have been generated with the help of the "eg/bench" program |
825 |
|
|
in the JSON::XS distribution, to make it easy to compare on your own |
826 |
|
|
system. |
827 |
|
|
|
828 |
root |
1.12 |
First comes a comparison between various modules using a very short |
829 |
|
|
single-line JSON string: |
830 |
root |
1.7 |
|
831 |
root |
1.12 |
{"method": "handleMessage", "params": ["user1", "we were just talking"], \ |
832 |
|
|
"id": null, "array":[1,11,234,-5,1e5,1e7, true, false]} |
833 |
root |
1.7 |
|
834 |
|
|
It shows the number of encodes/decodes per second (JSON::XS uses the |
835 |
|
|
functional interface, while JSON::XS/2 uses the OO interface with |
836 |
root |
1.13 |
pretty-printing and hashkey sorting enabled, JSON::XS/3 enables shrink). |
837 |
|
|
Higher is better: |
838 |
root |
1.2 |
|
839 |
|
|
module | encode | decode | |
840 |
|
|
-----------|------------|------------| |
841 |
root |
1.21 |
JSON 1.x | 4990.842 | 4088.813 | |
842 |
root |
1.15 |
JSON::DWIW | 51653.990 | 71575.154 | |
843 |
|
|
JSON::PC | 65948.176 | 74631.744 | |
844 |
|
|
JSON::PP | 8931.652 | 3817.168 | |
845 |
|
|
JSON::Syck | 24877.248 | 27776.848 | |
846 |
|
|
JSON::XS | 388361.481 | 227951.304 | |
847 |
|
|
JSON::XS/2 | 227951.304 | 218453.333 | |
848 |
|
|
JSON::XS/3 | 338250.323 | 218453.333 | |
849 |
|
|
Storable | 16500.016 | 135300.129 | |
850 |
root |
1.2 |
-----------+------------+------------+ |
851 |
|
|
|
852 |
root |
1.12 |
That is, JSON::XS is about five times faster than JSON::DWIW on |
853 |
root |
1.20 |
encoding, about three times faster on decoding, and over forty times |
854 |
root |
1.12 |
faster than JSON, even with pretty-printing and key sorting. It also |
855 |
|
|
compares favourably to Storable for small amounts of data. |
856 |
root |
1.2 |
|
857 |
root |
1.5 |
Using a longer test string (roughly 18KB, generated from Yahoo! Locals |
858 |
root |
1.2 |
search API (http://nanoref.com/yahooapis/mgPdGg): |
859 |
|
|
|
860 |
|
|
module | encode | decode | |
861 |
|
|
-----------|------------|------------| |
862 |
root |
1.21 |
JSON 1.x | 55.260 | 34.971 | |
863 |
root |
1.15 |
JSON::DWIW | 825.228 | 1082.513 | |
864 |
|
|
JSON::PC | 3571.444 | 2394.829 | |
865 |
|
|
JSON::PP | 210.987 | 32.574 | |
866 |
|
|
JSON::Syck | 552.551 | 787.544 | |
867 |
|
|
JSON::XS | 5780.463 | 4854.519 | |
868 |
|
|
JSON::XS/2 | 3869.998 | 4798.975 | |
869 |
|
|
JSON::XS/3 | 5862.880 | 4798.975 | |
870 |
|
|
Storable | 4445.002 | 5235.027 | |
871 |
root |
1.2 |
-----------+------------+------------+ |
872 |
|
|
|
873 |
root |
1.13 |
Again, JSON::XS leads by far (except for Storable which non-surprisingly |
874 |
|
|
decodes faster). |
875 |
root |
1.2 |
|
876 |
root |
1.20 |
On large strings containing lots of high Unicode characters, some |
877 |
root |
1.7 |
modules (such as JSON::PC) seem to decode faster than JSON::XS, but the |
878 |
root |
1.20 |
result will be broken due to missing (or wrong) Unicode handling. Others |
879 |
root |
1.7 |
refuse to decode or encode properly, so it was impossible to prepare a |
880 |
|
|
fair comparison table for that case. |
881 |
root |
1.5 |
|
882 |
root |
1.8 |
SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS |
883 |
|
|
When you are using JSON in a protocol, talking to untrusted potentially |
884 |
|
|
hostile creatures requires relatively few measures. |
885 |
|
|
|
886 |
|
|
First of all, your JSON decoder should be secure, that is, should not |
887 |
|
|
have any buffer overflows. Obviously, this module should ensure that and |
888 |
|
|
I am trying hard on making that true, but you never know. |
889 |
|
|
|
890 |
|
|
Second, you need to avoid resource-starving attacks. That means you |
891 |
|
|
should limit the size of JSON texts you accept, or make sure then when |
892 |
root |
1.20 |
your resources run out, that's just fine (e.g. by using a separate |
893 |
root |
1.8 |
process that can crash safely). The size of a JSON text in octets or |
894 |
|
|
characters is usually a good indication of the size of the resources |
895 |
root |
1.15 |
required to decode it into a Perl structure. While JSON::XS can check |
896 |
|
|
the size of the JSON text, it might be too late when you already have it |
897 |
|
|
in memory, so you might want to check the size before you accept the |
898 |
|
|
string. |
899 |
root |
1.8 |
|
900 |
|
|
Third, JSON::XS recurses using the C stack when decoding objects and |
901 |
|
|
arrays. The C stack is a limited resource: for instance, on my amd64 |
902 |
|
|
machine with 8MB of stack size I can decode around 180k nested arrays |
903 |
root |
1.10 |
but only 14k nested JSON objects (due to perl itself recursing deeply on |
904 |
|
|
croak to free the temporary). If that is exceeded, the program crashes. |
905 |
|
|
to be conservative, the default nesting limit is set to 512. If your |
906 |
root |
1.8 |
process has a smaller stack, you should adjust this setting accordingly |
907 |
|
|
with the "max_depth" method. |
908 |
|
|
|
909 |
|
|
And last but least, something else could bomb you that I forgot to think |
910 |
root |
1.11 |
of. In that case, you get to keep the pieces. I am always open for |
911 |
root |
1.8 |
hints, though... |
912 |
root |
1.2 |
|
913 |
root |
1.20 |
If you are using JSON::XS to return packets to consumption by JavaScript |
914 |
root |
1.14 |
scripts in a browser you should have a look at |
915 |
root |
1.20 |
<http://jpsykes.com/47/practical-csrf-and-json-security> to see whether |
916 |
root |
1.14 |
you are vulnerable to some common attack vectors (which really are |
917 |
|
|
browser design bugs, but it is still you who will have to deal with it, |
918 |
|
|
as major browser developers care only for features, not about doing |
919 |
|
|
security right). |
920 |
|
|
|
921 |
root |
1.19 |
THREADS |
922 |
root |
1.20 |
This module is *not* guaranteed to be thread safe and there are no plans |
923 |
root |
1.19 |
to change this until Perl gets thread support (as opposed to the |
924 |
|
|
horribly slow so-called "threads" which are simply slow and bloated |
925 |
|
|
process simulations - use fork, its *much* faster, cheaper, better). |
926 |
|
|
|
927 |
root |
1.20 |
(It might actually work, but you have been warned). |
928 |
root |
1.19 |
|
929 |
root |
1.2 |
BUGS |
930 |
|
|
While the goal of this module is to be correct, that unfortunately does |
931 |
|
|
not mean its bug-free, only that I think its design is bug-free. It is |
932 |
root |
1.8 |
still relatively early in its development. If you keep reporting bugs |
933 |
|
|
they will be fixed swiftly, though. |
934 |
root |
1.1 |
|
935 |
root |
1.19 |
Please refrain from using rt.cpan.org or any other bug reporting |
936 |
|
|
service. I put the contact address into my modules for a reason. |
937 |
|
|
|
938 |
root |
1.1 |
AUTHOR |
939 |
|
|
Marc Lehmann <schmorp@schmorp.de> |
940 |
|
|
http://home.schmorp.de/ |
941 |
|
|
|