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		1	=head1 LIBECB - e-C-Builtins
		2
		3	=head2 ABOUT LIBECB
		4
		5	Libecb is currently a simple header file that doesn't require any
		6	configuration to use or include in your project.
		7
		8	It's part of the e-suite of libraries, other members of which include
		9	libev and libeio.
		10
		11	Its homepage can be found here:
		12
		13	http://software.schmorp.de/pkg/libecb
		14
		15	It mainly provides a number of wrappers around GCC built-ins, together
		16	with replacement functions for other compilers. In addition to this,
		17	it provides a number of other lowlevel C utilities, such as endianness
		18	detection, byte swapping or bit rotations.
		19
		20	Or in other words, things that should be built into any standard C system,
		21	but aren't, implemented as efficient as possible with GCC, and still
		22	correct with other compilers.
		23
		24	More might come.
		25
		26	=head2 ABOUT THE HEADER
		27
		28	At the moment, all you have to do is copy F<ecb.h> somewhere where your
		29	compiler can find it and include it:
		30
		31	#include <ecb.h>
		32
		33	The header should work fine for both C and C++ compilation, and gives you
		34	all of F<inttypes.h> in addition to the ECB symbols.
		35
		36	There are currently no object files to link to - future versions might
		37	come with an (optional) object code library to link against, to reduce
		38	code size or gain access to additional features.
		39
		40	It also currently includes everything from F<inttypes.h>.
		41
		42	=head2 ABOUT THIS MANUAL / CONVENTIONS
		43
		44	This manual mainly describes each (public) function available after
		45	including the F<ecb.h> header. The header might define other symbols than
		46	these, but these are not part of the public API, and not supported in any
		47	way.
		48
		49	When the manual mentions a "function" then this could be defined either as
		50	as inline function, a macro, or an external symbol.
		51
		52	When functions use a concrete standard type, such as C<int> or
		53	C<uint32_t>, then the corresponding function works only with that type. If
		54	only a generic name is used (C<expr>, C<cond>, C<value> and so on), then
		55	the corresponding function relies on C to implement the correct types, and
		56	is usually implemented as a macro. Specifically, a "bool" in this manual
		57	refers to any kind of boolean value, not a specific type.
		58
		59	=head2 TYPES / TYPE SUPPORT
		60
		61	ecb.h makes sure that the following types are defined (in the expected way):
		62
		63	int8_t uint8_t int16_t uint16_t
		64	int32_t uint32_t int64_t uint64_t
		65	intptr_t uintptr_t ptrdiff_t
		66
		67	The macro C<ECB_PTRSIZE> is defined to the size of a pointer on this
		68	platform (currently C<4> or C<8>).
		69
		70	=head2 LANGUAGE/COMPILER VERSIONS
		71
		72	=over 4
		73
		74	=item ECB_C99
		75
		76	Expands to a true value (suitable for testing in by the preprocessor)
		77	if the environment claims to be C99 compliant.
		78
		79	=item ECB_C11
		80
		81	Expands to a true value (suitable for testing in by the preprocessor)
		82	if the environment claims to be C11 compliant.
		83
		84	=item ECB_GCC_VERSION(major,minor)
		85
		86	Expands to a true value (suitable for testing in by the preprocessor)
		87	if the compiler used is GNU C and the version is the givne version, or
		88	higher.
		89
		90	This macro tries to return false on compilers that claim to be GCC
		91	compatible but aren't.
		92
		93	=back
1		94
2	=head2 GCC ATTRIBUTES	95	=head2 GCC ATTRIBUTES
3		96
		97	A major part of libecb deals with GCC attributes. These are additional
		98	attributes that you can assign to functions, variables and sometimes even
		99	types - much like C<const> or C<volatile> in C.
		100
		101	While GCC allows declarations to show up in many surprising places,
		102	but not in many expected places, the safest way is to put attribute
		103	declarations before the whole declaration:
		104
		105	ecb_const int mysqrt (int a);
		106	ecb_unused int i;
		107
		108	For variables, it is often nicer to put the attribute after the name, and
		109	avoid multiple declarations using commas:
		110
		111	int i ecb_unused;
		112
4	=over 4	113	=over 4
5		114
6	=item ecb_attribute(attrlist)	115	=item ecb_attribute ((attrs...))
7	=item ecb_noinline ecb_attribute ((noinline))
8	=item ecb_noreturn ecb_attribute ((noreturn))
9	=item ecb_unused ecb_attribute ((unused))
10	=item ecb_const ecb_attribute ((const))
11	=item ecb_pure ecb_attribute ((pure))
12	=item ecb_hot ecb_attribute ((hot)) /* 4.3 */
13	=item ecb_cold ecb_attribute ((cold)) /* 4.3 */
14		116
		117	A simple wrapper that expands to C<__attribute__((attrs))> on GCC, and to
		118	nothing on other compilers, so the effect is that only GCC sees these.
		119
		120	Example: use the C<deprecated> attribute on a function.
		121
		122	ecb_attribute((__deprecated__)) void
		123	do_not_use_me_anymore (void);
		124
		125	=item ecb_unused
		126
		127	Marks a function or a variable as "unused", which simply suppresses a
		128	warning by GCC when it detects it as unused. This is useful when you e.g.
		129	declare a variable but do not always use it:
		130
		131	{
		132	int var ecb_unused;
		133
		134	#ifdef SOMECONDITION
		135	var = ...;
		136	return var;
		137	#else
		138	return 0;
		139	#endif
		140	}
		141
		142	=item ecb_inline
		143
		144	This is not actually an attribute, but you use it like one. It expands
		145	either to C<static inline> or to just C<static>, if inline isn't
		146	supported. It should be used to declare functions that should be inlined,
		147	for code size or speed reasons.
		148
		149	Example: inline this function, it surely will reduce codesize.
		150
		151	ecb_inline int
		152	negmul (int a, int b)
		153	{
		154	return - (a * b);
		155	}
		156
		157	=item ecb_noinline
		158
		159	Prevent a function from being inlined - it might be optimised away, but
		160	not inlined into other functions. This is useful if you know your function
		161	is rarely called and large enough for inlining not to be helpful.
		162
		163	=item ecb_noreturn
		164
		165	Marks a function as "not returning, ever". Some typical functions that
		166	don't return are C<exit> or C<abort> (which really works hard to not
		167	return), and now you can make your own:
		168
		169	ecb_noreturn void
		170	my_abort (const char *errline)
		171	{
		172	puts (errline);
		173	abort ();
		174	}
		175
		176	In this case, the compiler would probably be smart enough to deduce it on
		177	its own, so this is mainly useful for declarations.
		178
		179	=item ecb_const
		180
		181	Declares that the function only depends on the values of its arguments,
		182	much like a mathematical function. It specifically does not read or write
		183	any memory any arguments might point to, global variables, or call any
		184	non-const functions. It also must not have any side effects.
		185
		186	Such a function can be optimised much more aggressively by the compiler -
		187	for example, multiple calls with the same arguments can be optimised into
		188	a single call, which wouldn't be possible if the compiler would have to
		189	expect any side effects.
		190
		191	It is best suited for functions in the sense of mathematical functions,
		192	such as a function returning the square root of its input argument.
		193
		194	Not suited would be a function that calculates the hash of some memory
		195	area you pass in, prints some messages or looks at a global variable to
		196	decide on rounding.
		197
		198	See C<ecb_pure> for a slightly less restrictive class of functions.
		199
		200	=item ecb_pure
		201
		202	Similar to C<ecb_const>, declares a function that has no side
		203	effects. Unlike C<ecb_const>, the function is allowed to examine global
		204	variables and any other memory areas (such as the ones passed to it via
		205	pointers).
		206
		207	While these functions cannot be optimised as aggressively as C<ecb_const>
		208	functions, they can still be optimised away in many occasions, and the
		209	compiler has more freedom in moving calls to them around.
		210
		211	Typical examples for such functions would be C<strlen> or C<memcmp>. A
		212	function that calculates the MD5 sum of some input and updates some MD5
		213	state passed as argument would I<NOT> be pure, however, as it would modify
		214	some memory area that is not the return value.
		215
		216	=item ecb_hot
		217
		218	This declares a function as "hot" with regards to the cache - the function
		219	is used so often, that it is very beneficial to keep it in the cache if
		220	possible.
		221
		222	The compiler reacts by trying to place hot functions near to each other in
		223	memory.
		224
		225	Whether a function is hot or not often depends on the whole program,
		226	and less on the function itself. C<ecb_cold> is likely more useful in
		227	practise.
		228
		229	=item ecb_cold
		230
		231	The opposite of C<ecb_hot> - declares a function as "cold" with regards to
		232	the cache, or in other words, this function is not called often, or not at
		233	speed-critical times, and keeping it in the cache might be a waste of said
		234	cache.
		235
		236	In addition to placing cold functions together (or at least away from hot
		237	functions), this knowledge can be used in other ways, for example, the
		238	function will be optimised for size, as opposed to speed, and codepaths
		239	leading to calls to those functions can automatically be marked as if
		240	C<ecb_expect_false> had been used to reach them.
		241
		242	Good examples for such functions would be error reporting functions, or
		243	functions only called in exceptional or rare cases.
		244
		245	=item ecb_artificial
		246
		247	Declares the function as "artificial", in this case meaning that this
		248	function is not really mean to be a function, but more like an accessor
		249	- many methods in C++ classes are mere accessor functions, and having a
		250	crash reported in such a method, or single-stepping through them, is not
		251	usually so helpful, especially when it's inlined to just a few instructions.
		252
		253	Marking them as artificial will instruct the debugger about just this,
		254	leading to happier debugging and thus happier lives.
		255
		256	Example: in some kind of smart-pointer class, mark the pointer accessor as
		257	artificial, so that the whole class acts more like a pointer and less like
		258	some C++ abstraction monster.
		259
		260	template<typename T>
		261	struct my_smart_ptr
		262	{
		263	T *value;
		264
		265	ecb_artificial
		266	operator T *()
		267	{
		268	return value;
		269	}
		270	};
		271
15	=back	272	=back
16		273
17	=head2 OPTIMISATION HINTS	274	=head2 OPTIMISATION HINTS
18		275
19	=over 4	276	=over 4
20		277
21	=item bool ecb_is_constant(expr)	278	=item bool ecb_is_constant(expr)
22		279
		280	Returns true iff the expression can be deduced to be a compile-time
		281	constant, and false otherwise.
		282
		283	For example, when you have a C<rndm16> function that returns a 16 bit
		284	random number, and you have a function that maps this to a range from
		285	0..n-1, then you could use this inline function in a header file:
		286
		287	ecb_inline uint32_t
		288	rndm (uint32_t n)
		289	{
		290	return (n * (uint32_t)rndm16 ()) >> 16;
		291	}
		292
		293	However, for powers of two, you could use a normal mask, but that is only
		294	worth it if, at compile time, you can detect this case. This is the case
		295	when the passed number is a constant and also a power of two (C<n & (n -
		296	1) == 0>):
		297
		298	ecb_inline uint32_t
		299	rndm (uint32_t n)
		300	{
		301	return is_constant (n) && !(n & (n - 1))
		302	? rndm16 () & (num - 1)
		303	: (n * (uint32_t)rndm16 ()) >> 16;
		304	}
		305
23	=item bool ecb_expect(expr,value)	306	=item bool ecb_expect (expr, value)
24		307
25	=item bool ecb_unlikely(bool)	308	Evaluates C<expr> and returns it. In addition, it tells the compiler that
		309	the C<expr> evaluates to C<value> a lot, which can be used for static
		310	branch optimisations.
26		311
27	=item bool ecb_likely(bool)	312	Usually, you want to use the more intuitive C<ecb_expect_true> and
		313	C<ecb_expect_false> functions instead.
28		314
		315	=item bool ecb_expect_true (cond)
		316
		317	=item bool ecb_expect_false (cond)
		318
		319	These two functions expect a expression that is true or false and return
		320	C<1> or C<0>, respectively, so when used in the condition of an C<if> or
		321	other conditional statement, it will not change the program:
		322
		323	/* these two do the same thing */
		324	if (some_condition) ...;
		325	if (ecb_expect_true (some_condition)) ...;
		326
		327	However, by using C<ecb_expect_true>, you tell the compiler that the
		328	condition is likely to be true (and for C<ecb_expect_false>, that it is
		329	unlikely to be true).
		330
		331	For example, when you check for a null pointer and expect this to be a
		332	rare, exceptional, case, then use C<ecb_expect_false>:
		333
		334	void my_free (void *ptr)
		335	{
		336	if (ecb_expect_false (ptr == 0))
		337	return;
		338	}
		339
		340	Consequent use of these functions to mark away exceptional cases or to
		341	tell the compiler what the hot path through a function is can increase
		342	performance considerably.
		343
		344	You might know these functions under the name C<likely> and C<unlikely>
		345	- while these are common aliases, we find that the expect name is easier
		346	to understand when quickly skimming code. If you wish, you can use
		347	C<ecb_likely> instead of C<ecb_expect_true> and C<ecb_unlikely> instead of
		348	C<ecb_expect_false> - these are simply aliases.
		349
		350	A very good example is in a function that reserves more space for some
		351	memory block (for example, inside an implementation of a string stream) -
		352	each time something is added, you have to check for a buffer overrun, but
		353	you expect that most checks will turn out to be false:
		354
		355	/* make sure we have "size" extra room in our buffer */
		356	ecb_inline void
		357	reserve (int size)
		358	{
		359	if (ecb_expect_false (current + size > end))
		360	real_reserve_method (size); /* presumably noinline */
		361	}
		362
29	=item bool ecb_assume(cond)	363	=item bool ecb_assume (cond)
30		364
		365	Try to tell the compiler that some condition is true, even if it's not
		366	obvious.
		367
		368	This can be used to teach the compiler about invariants or other
		369	conditions that might improve code generation, but which are impossible to
		370	deduce form the code itself.
		371
		372	For example, the example reservation function from the C<ecb_expect_false>
		373	description could be written thus (only C<ecb_assume> was added):
		374
		375	ecb_inline void
		376	reserve (int size)
		377	{
		378	if (ecb_expect_false (current + size > end))
		379	real_reserve_method (size); /* presumably noinline */
		380
		381	ecb_assume (current + size <= end);
		382	}
		383
		384	If you then call this function twice, like this:
		385
		386	reserve (10);
		387	reserve (1);
		388
		389	Then the compiler I<might> be able to optimise out the second call
		390	completely, as it knows that C<< current + 1 > end >> is false and the
		391	call will never be executed.
		392
31	=item bool ecb_unreachable()	393	=item bool ecb_unreachable ()
32		394
		395	This function does nothing itself, except tell the compiler that it will
		396	never be executed. Apart from suppressing a warning in some cases, this
		397	function can be used to implement C<ecb_assume> or similar functions.
		398
33	=item bool ecb_prefetch(addr,rw,locality)	399	=item bool ecb_prefetch (addr, rw, locality)
34		400
		401	Tells the compiler to try to prefetch memory at the given C<addr>ess
		402	for either reading (C<rw> = 0) or writing (C<rw> = 1). A C<locality> of
		403	C<0> means that there will only be one access later, C<3> means that
		404	the data will likely be accessed very often, and values in between mean
		405	something... in between. The memory pointed to by the address does not
		406	need to be accessible (it could be a null pointer for example), but C<rw>
		407	and C<locality> must be compile-time constants.
		408
		409	An obvious way to use this is to prefetch some data far away, in a big
		410	array you loop over. This prefetches memory some 128 array elements later,
		411	in the hope that it will be ready when the CPU arrives at that location.
		412
		413	int sum = 0;
		414
		415	for (i = 0; i < N; ++i)
		416	{
		417	sum += arr [i]
		418	ecb_prefetch (arr + i + 128, 0, 0);
		419	}
		420
		421	It's hard to predict how far to prefetch, and most CPUs that can prefetch
		422	are often good enough to predict this kind of behaviour themselves. It
		423	gets more interesting with linked lists, especially when you do some fair
		424	processing on each list element:
		425
		426	for (node *n = start; n; n = n->next)
		427	{
		428	ecb_prefetch (n->next, 0, 0);
		429	... do medium amount of work with *n
		430	}
		431
		432	After processing the node, (part of) the next node might already be in
		433	cache.
		434
35	=back	435	=back
36		436
37	=head2 BIT FIDDLING / BITSTUFFS	437	=head2 BIT FIDDLING / BIT WIZARDRY
38		438
		439	=over 4
		440
39	bool ecb_big_endian ();	441	=item bool ecb_big_endian ()
		442
40	bool ecb_little_endian ();	443	=item bool ecb_little_endian ()
		444
		445	These two functions return true if the byte order is big endian
		446	(most-significant byte first) or little endian (least-significant byte
		447	first) respectively.
		448
		449	On systems that are neither, their return values are unspecified.
		450
41	int ecb_ctz32 (uint32_t x);	451	=item int ecb_ctz32 (uint32_t x)
		452
		453	=item int ecb_ctz64 (uint64_t x)
		454
		455	Returns the index of the least significant bit set in C<x> (or
		456	equivalently the number of bits set to 0 before the least significant bit
		457	set), starting from 0. If C<x> is 0 the result is undefined.
		458
		459	For smaller types than C<uint32_t> you can safely use C<ecb_ctz32>.
		460
		461	For example:
		462
		463	ecb_ctz32 (3) = 0
		464	ecb_ctz32 (6) = 1
		465
		466	=item bool ecb_is_pot32 (uint32_t x)
		467
		468	=item bool ecb_is_pot64 (uint32_t x)
		469
		470	Return true iff C<x> is a power of two or C<x == 0>.
		471
		472	For smaller types then C<uint32_t> you can safely use C<ecb_is_pot32>.
		473
		474	=item int ecb_ld32 (uint32_t x)
		475
		476	=item int ecb_ld64 (uint64_t x)
		477
		478	Returns the index of the most significant bit set in C<x>, or the number
		479	of digits the number requires in binary (so that C<< 2**ld <= x <
		480	2**(ld+1) >>). If C<x> is 0 the result is undefined. A common use case is
		481	to compute the integer binary logarithm, i.e. C<floor (log2 (n))>, for
		482	example to see how many bits a certain number requires to be encoded.
		483
		484	This function is similar to the "count leading zero bits" function, except
		485	that that one returns how many zero bits are "in front" of the number (in
		486	the given data type), while C<ecb_ld> returns how many bits the number
		487	itself requires.
		488
		489	For smaller types than C<uint32_t> you can safely use C<ecb_ld32>.
		490
42	int ecb_popcount32 (uint32_t x);	491	=item int ecb_popcount32 (uint32_t x)
		492
		493	=item int ecb_popcount64 (uint64_t x)
		494
		495	Returns the number of bits set to 1 in C<x>.
		496
		497	For smaller types than C<uint32_t> you can safely use C<ecb_popcount32>.
		498
		499	For example:
		500
		501	ecb_popcount32 (7) = 3
		502	ecb_popcount32 (255) = 8
		503
		504	=item uint8_t ecb_bitrev8 (uint8_t x)
		505
		506	=item uint16_t ecb_bitrev16 (uint16_t x)
		507
43	uint32_t ecb_bswap32 (uint32_t x);	508	=item uint32_t ecb_bitrev32 (uint32_t x)
		509
		510	Reverses the bits in x, i.e. the MSB becomes the LSB, MSB-1 becomes LSB+1
		511	and so on.
		512
		513	Example:
		514
		515	ecb_bitrev8 (0xa7) = 0xea
		516	ecb_bitrev32 (0xffcc4411) = 0x882233ff
		517
44	uint32_t ecb_bswap16 (uint32_t x);	518	=item uint32_t ecb_bswap16 (uint32_t x)
		519
		520	=item uint32_t ecb_bswap32 (uint32_t x)
		521
		522	=item uint64_t ecb_bswap64 (uint64_t x)
		523
		524	These functions return the value of the 16-bit (32-bit, 64-bit) value
		525	C<x> after reversing the order of bytes (0x11223344 becomes 0x44332211 in
		526	C<ecb_bswap32>).
		527
45	uint32_t ecb_rotr32 (uint32_t x, unsigned int count);	528	=item uint8_t ecb_rotl8 (uint8_t x, unsigned int count)
		529
		530	=item uint16_t ecb_rotl16 (uint16_t x, unsigned int count)
		531
46	uint32_t ecb_rotl32 (uint32_t x, unsigned int count);	532	=item uint32_t ecb_rotl32 (uint32_t x, unsigned int count)
		533
		534	=item uint64_t ecb_rotl64 (uint64_t x, unsigned int count)
		535
		536	=item uint8_t ecb_rotr8 (uint8_t x, unsigned int count)
		537
		538	=item uint16_t ecb_rotr16 (uint16_t x, unsigned int count)
		539
		540	=item uint32_t ecb_rotr32 (uint32_t x, unsigned int count)
		541
		542	=item uint64_t ecb_rotr64 (uint64_t x, unsigned int count)
		543
		544	These two families of functions return the value of C<x> after rotating
		545	all the bits by C<count> positions to the right (C<ecb_rotr>) or left
		546	(C<ecb_rotl>).
		547
		548	Current GCC versions understand these functions and usually compile them
		549	to "optimal" code (e.g. a single C<rol> or a combination of C<shld> on
		550	x86).
		551
		552	=back
47		553
48	=head2 ARITHMETIC	554	=head2 ARITHMETIC
49		555
		556	=over 4
		557
50	x = ecb_mod (m, n)	558	=item x = ecb_mod (m, n)
		559
		560	Returns C<m> modulo C<n>, which is the same as the positive remainder
		561	of the division operation between C<m> and C<n>, using floored
		562	division. Unlike the C remainder operator C<%>, this function ensures that
		563	the return value is always positive and that the two numbers I<m> and
		564	I<m' = m + i * n> result in the same value modulo I<n> - in other words,
		565	C<ecb_mod> implements the mathematical modulo operation, which is missing
		566	in the language.
		567
		568	C<n> must be strictly positive (i.e. C<< >= 1 >>), while C<m> must be
		569	negatable, that is, both C<m> and C<-m> must be representable in its
		570	type (this typically excludes the minimum signed integer value, the same
		571	limitation as for C</> and C<%> in C).
		572
		573	Current GCC versions compile this into an efficient branchless sequence on
		574	almost all CPUs.
		575
		576	For example, when you want to rotate forward through the members of an
		577	array for increasing C<m> (which might be negative), then you should use
		578	C<ecb_mod>, as the C<%> operator might give either negative results, or
		579	change direction for negative values:
		580
		581	for (m = -100; m <= 100; ++m)
		582	int elem = myarray [ecb_mod (m, ecb_array_length (myarray))];
		583
		584	=item x = ecb_div_rd (val, div)
		585
		586	=item x = ecb_div_ru (val, div)
		587
		588	Returns C<val> divided by C<div> rounded down or up, respectively.
		589	C<val> and C<div> must have integer types and C<div> must be strictly
		590	positive. Note that these functions are implemented with macros in C
		591	and with function templates in C++.
		592
		593	=back
51		594
52	=head2 UTILITY	595	=head2 UTILITY
53		596
54	ecb_array_length (name)	597	=over 4
55		598
		599	=item element_count = ecb_array_length (name)
56		600
		601	Returns the number of elements in the array C<name>. For example:
		602
		603	int primes[] = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 };
		604	int sum = 0;
		605
		606	for (i = 0; i < ecb_array_length (primes); i++)
		607	sum += primes [i];
		608
		609	=back
		610
		611	=head2 SYMBOLS GOVERNING COMPILATION OF ECB.H ITSELF
		612
		613	These symbols need to be defined before including F<ecb.h> the first time.
		614
		615	=over 4
		616
		617	=item ECB_NO_THRADS
		618
		619	If F<ecb.h> is never used from multiple threads, then this symbol can
		620	be defined, in which case memory fences (and similar constructs) are
		621	completely removed, leading to more efficient code and fewer dependencies.
		622
		623	Setting this symbol to a true value implies C<ECB_NO_SMP>.
		624
		625	=item ECB_NO_SMP
		626
		627	The weaker version of C<ECB_NO_THREADS> - if F<ecb.h> is used from
		628	multiple threads, but never concurrently (e.g. if the system the program
		629	runs on has only a single CPU with a single core, no hyperthreading and so
		630	on), then this symbol can be defined, leading to more efficient code and
		631	fewer dependencies.
		632
		633	=back
		634
		635

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Comparing libecb/ecb.pod (file contents): Revision 1.1 by root, Thu May 26 19:39:40 2011 UTC vs. Revision 1.43 by root, Tue May 29 14:09:49 2012 UTC

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Comparing libecb/ecb.pod (file contents):
Revision 1.1 by root, Thu May 26 19:39:40 2011 UTC vs.
Revision 1.43 by root, Tue May 29 14:09:49 2012 UTC